Rep. Fac. Science, Shizuoka Univ. Vol.39 (2005) (to be published)
H. Kozima
Cold Fusion Research Laboratory, Yatsu 597-16, Shizuoka, Aoi, Shizuoka 421-1202, Japan.
E-mail: cf-lab.kozima@nifty.com
Website: http://www.geocities.jp/hjrfq930/
(Received Final Manuscript on Dec. 13, 2004)
"- - - - - From this natural phenomenon which previously seemed impossible to you, you should realize that there may be others which you do not yet know. Do not conclude from your apprenticeship that there is nothing left for you to learn, but that you still have an infinite amount to learn." (Pascal Pansees} [420] Translated by A.J. Krailsheimer, Penguin Classics, p.126)
1. Introduction
1.1 Cold Fusion Phenomenon (CFP) Occurs in Complex Systems - fcc Transition-Metal Hydrides/Deuterides and Proton Conductors - in Ambient Radiation
1.2 Assumption of d-d Fusion Reactions and Its Difficulty
1.3 Characteristics of CFP in Electrolytic Systems
1.4 Neutron Plays Essential Roles
1.5 Phenomenological Approach for Difficult Problems
2. Experimental
Data Sets of CFP and Its Consistent Explanation
2.1 TNCF Model and Neutron Drop Model
2.2 Tritium Production
2.3 Helium-4 Production
2.4 Neutron Emission
2.5 Decay-Time Shortening
2.6 Nuclear Transmutation and the Stability Effect
2.7 X-ray, Gamma Ray and Others
2.8 Localization of CF Reactions
2.9 Excess Heat and the Inverse Power Law
2.10 After Effect
2.11 Aging Effect
3. Quantum Mechanical Investigation of Interdisciplinary Field between Nuclear Physics and Solid-State Physics using Data of CFP
3.1 Neutrons in Crystal
3.2 Hydrogen Isotopes in fcc Transition Metals
3.3 Energetics of Nuclides related to CFP
3.4 Excited States of a Nucleus around the Separation Level (Zero Energy)
3.5 Neutron Bands in \fcc Transition-Metal Hydrides and Deuterides
3.6 The cf-Matter \hiku Neutron Drops in Thin Neutron Gas formed at Boundary (and Surface) Regions
3.7 CFP or Nuclear Reactions Induced by Neutron Drops in cf-Matter
3.8 Surface Layers in Electrolytic Systems
4. Conclusion
A.1 Premises of TNCF Model
A.2 Nuclear Reactions Relevant to the TNCF Model
Appendix B. Neutron Bands and CF-Matter
in fcc Transition-Metal Hydrides and Deuterides
B.1 Perturbation Treatment of Many-Body System
B.2 Calculation of Neutron Valence Band
B.3 Energetics of Neutron Drops
Appendix C. The Neutron Affinity
Appendix D. Main International Conferences
References in this review includes list of selected papers referred in this review cited with an asterisk in the reference symbol [xxxx 19yy] as [Kozima 1998a\hosi].
(Full list of papers cited in this review is available by an e-mail request to the Author and also seen in the CFRL Website http://www.geocities.jp/hjrfq930/ )
First of all, it should be mentioned that the term "Cold Fusion Phenomenon" (CFP) includes nuclear reactions and accompanying events occurring in solids with high densities of hydrogen isotopes (H and/or D) in ambient radiation.
In 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published the first modern paper on this problem. In an electrolytic system, Pd/D\suf{2}O + LiOD/Pt, they measured excess heat, tritium and neutrons. They expected to conclude from the experimental data that the observed data were resulted from "\de-\dee fusion reactions in solids, the Fleischmann's hypothesis, which are generally considered improbable to occur in solids. Succeeding investigations revealed, however, that such curious events not known before are also observed in systems containing only protium without deuterium. Furthermore, it became clear that there are no positive results without background thermal neutrons thus showing the essential role of thermal neutrons in CFP. More puzzling factors in CFP are poor reproducibility and the sporadic occurrence of events. In addition to these qualitative characteristics discovered, there is an enormous amount of data of various kinds of events occurring in samples localized at surfaces/boundaries showing facts peculiar to CFP, which are inexplicable without invoking nuclear reactions in materials used in the CF experiments (CF materials).
A phenomenological approach using a model (TNCF model) was tried as an orthodox procedure to attack complex problems with unknown parameters difficult to explain theoretically using known fundamental equations. We were able to give a consistent explanation of various experimental data sets obtained in both protium and deuterium systems and in proton conductors with the TNCF model. Puzzles of CFP pointed out above were explained indirectly from unified point of view based on experimental facts. The key postulate of the phenomenological TNCF model is the existence of thermal neutrons in \fcc transition-metal hydrides/deuterides and proton conductors, where most positive data have been obtained. The TNCF model with an adjustable parameter, \enuen, has been successful in explaining characteristics of CFP and many quantitative relations between CF products. Also, a progress of the TNCF model has been made to the neutron drop model to explain nuclear transmutations where a multi-neutron absorption by a nuclide is needed.
In an attempt to explain quantum mechanically the several postulates assumed in the successful models, it has been shown that there are previously unknown, important new fields in nuclear physics and solid-state physics. These fields are closely related with the CFP and are not explained by conventional knowledge of physics. The excited state of neutrons around the separation level (zero energy) in a nucleus is a concept not recognized to have any importance in nuclear physics. The quantum mechanical state of hydrogen isotopes in \fcc transition-metal hydrides and deuterides is another concept not recognized to have an important connection with nuclear physics. Surface layers on the cathodes in electrolytic systems and boundary layers in compound CF materials play important role in realization of CFP. These problems especially in electrolytic systems are investigated quantum mechanically and complexity in CFP is pointed out in this paper.
It is better to define our terminology first in order to express correctly our concepts of CFP discussed in this review.
The cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) stands for "nuclear reactions and accompanying events occurring in solids with high densities of hydrogen isotopes (H and/or D) in ambient radiation" despite a different meaning was attached by pioneering researchers. It should be emphasized here the decisive role of the background neutrons abundant in our environment (Carpenter 1989\hosi) in CFP which is explained in Section 1.4.
There is a large pile of experimentally obtained facts not explicable from electrochemistry, solid-state physics and nuclear physics at present stage of investigation and CFP is a concept grasped from author's point of view that assumes existence of common cause for the vast amount of these facts.
We use CF as an adjective, too, to express "related with (or used in) CFP." The cold fusion matter ({\it the cf-matter}) is a working concepts used to specify a state of materials in CF materials localized mainly at surface/boundary regions where occurs CFP. The region of CF materials where occurs CFP, i.e. the part where the cf-matter is formed, is usually localized to boundary and surface regions of samples used in CF researches (CF samples) but sometimes it should be considered to be a whole volume of the CF materials. The size of the localized region is known to be measured by micrometers (μm).
The standard of energy for nucleons in a nucleus is taken at the threshold energy of neutron emission or the separation level except otherwise stated. This means that {\it the zero of energy} is about 8 MeV higher than the ground level of nuclides in a nucleus with a medium nucleon number while it corresponds to the energy scale of thermal neutrons in free space.
To specify a CF system, we use following abbreviated symbols:
Pd/D/Li(/Pt) for an electrolytic system with a Pd cathode, an electrolyte including Li in D2O, (and a Pt anode).
Pd/D2 (Ni/H2) for a discharge or a gas contact system with a Pd cathode (Ni solid) and D2 (H2) gas.
Due to the newly developing nature of the CF research, it is desirable to cite as many experimental data as possible. By the limitation of space, however, we have to restrict the content of References mainly to selected papers (marked by an asterisk attached to the year as Kozima 1998a\hosi) appeared in periodicals easily accessible in ordinary university libraries in addition to author's papers referred in this review. In the selection, a weight was placed on the papers showing relation of CFP with other fields of physics. A full list of papers cited in this review, instead, is made available as a MS Word file by request to the author's e-mail address;
or as a pdf file in the author's website;
http://www.geocities.jp/hjrfq930/Papers/paperd/RRefFull.htm
Description in this Review
In this review paper, we give a brief survey of experimental data sets of CFP to present its characteristics. Then, we explain a phenomenological approach, which gives a consistent explanation of the typical experimental data sets. Finally, we discuss characteristics of \fcc transition-metal hydrides and deuterides quantum mechanically thus giving physical explanations of assumptions made in the phenomenological model and a possible microscopic explanation of CFP.
The cold fusion phenomenon (CFP) is a probe of solid state-nuclear physics that tells us about subtle structures of nuclei in solids not observed yet in the physics of nuclei isolated in free space, and also about the physics of fcc transition-metal hydrides/deuterides and proton conductors in which there are many unsolved riddles. Surface layers of cathodes formed in electrolysis play fundamental roles in realization of CFP. Some characteristics of electrolytic systems are only pointed out due to their difficulty to give any explanation at present.
Knowledge of solid state-nuclear physics disclosed by CFP may enhance our ability to induce nuclear transmutations in solids without emission of high-energy photons and particles and also to utilize the nuclear energy liberated in processes, which produce nuclear transmutations.