M. Fleischmann
In 1983, Stanley Pons and I posed ourselves the following two question:
i) Would the nuclear reactions of deuterons confined in a lattice be faster (and different) from the fusion of deuterons in a plasma?
ii) Could such nuclear reactions be detected?
In the first part of this paper I will outline part of the background which led us to pose these seemingly senseless questions. This background can be summarized by the statement: "the behavior of ions in condensed phase systems above absolute zero (of which D^{+} in a Pd - type lattice is an example) can only be explained by Quantum Field Theory, Q.F.T.." (it is likely that this statement applies even to gas phase systems). It has frequently been asserted that the explanation of Cold Fusion would require a Paradigm Shift. I believe that this is incorrect: the Paradigm Shift is well-known; the real difficulty lies in the application of this shift to the Natural Sciences.
We therefore believed that the two questions were sensible but, nevertheless, we expected the answers to be "Yes" and "No". At that time we listed possible systems for study under five headings:
(a) Systems based on the electro-diffusion of D^{+} in host lattices (especially Pd wires);
(b) Systems based on the electrochemical charging of host lattices (especially of Pd electrodes);
(c) Chemical Systems based on superacid/highly oxidizing conditions: the link to "Hot Fusion";
(d) Chemical Systems based on superbasic/highly reducing conditions;
(e) Hydrides of these systems.
We started work on (b) as a preliminary to (a).
As is well-known the outcome of our experiments was radically different from our expectations. It became evident that there were markedly enhanced rates of nuclear reactions as shown by the generation of excess enthalpy at levels far above those which can be accounted for by chemical reactions. Moreover, this generation of excess enthalpy was not accompanied by the expected levels of the "nuclear ashes", tritium and neutrons.
The present state of knowledge of this section of the field can be summarized as follows:
1) Excess enthalpy generation can be detected provided "correct" electrode materials are used;
2) The early development of excess enthalpy generation can be detected provided experiments are carried out with adequately high levels of precision and accuracy;
3) In the normal conditions of operation, the systems show "negative feedback"; at longer times one can detect the onset of "positive feedback" which exceeds the effects of "negative feedback" (as shown, for example, by the increase in the rates of excess enthalpy generation with increases of temperatures);
4) "Positive feedback" appears to be associated with regular or chaotic oscillations;
5) "Bursts" in the production of excess enthalpy can sometimes be detected, during such "bursts" the rates of excess enthalpy generation far exceed the rates of enthalpy input even for the energy inefficient systems in current use;
6) The performance envelope is different before and after the onset of "positive feedback";
7) "positive feedback" leads to the generation of high levels of excess enthalpy provided the systems are driven sufficiently rapidly through the region of the onset of "positive feedback";
8) High levels of excess enthalpy generation can be maintained for prolonged periods of time;
9) ^{4}He is the principal "nuclear ash"; tritium and neutron generation can be detected especially under non-equilibrium conditions;
10) The systems in use have been diversified to include the use of powders and electro-diffusion in fine wires; the latter systems are especially promising. (this survey will exclude investigations using light water.)
Aspects of the Sociology of Science will be considered. While Cold Fusion is certainly interesting from the point of view of Science, it may now be appropriate to devote more effort to other topics which can only be explained in the framework of Q.F.T. in an attempt to ensure the required Paradigm Shift.
Finally, the Social Implications of this field of research will be considered. While it is still too early to say whether (and, if so, how) excess enthalpy generation can be maintained and used, it is clear that Cold Fusion could become a significant energy source in the next century provided identifiable technological obstacles can be resolved.